Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance occurring in certain materials below a characteristic temperature. It was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8, 1911 in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon. It is characterized by the Meissner effect, the complete ejection of magnetic field lines from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be understood simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics.
The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as temperature is lowered. In ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver, this decrease is limited by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute zero, a real sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. An electric current flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.[1]
In 1986, it was discovered that some cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials have a critical temperature above 90 K (−183 °C). Such a high transition temperature is theoretically impossible for a conventional superconductor, leading the materials to be termed high-temperature superconductors. Liquid nitrogen boils at 77 K, facilitating many experiments and applications that are less practical at lower temperatures.
Wednesday, June 22, 2011
Tuesday, June 21, 2011
Monday, May 30, 2011
relativity and time dialtion
Time dilation is an observed difference of elapsed time between two observers which are moving relative to each other, or being differently situated from nearby gravitational masses. An observer will see the other observer's clock ticking at a slower rate than his/hers. This effect doesn't arise from technical aspects of the clock or the fact that any signal needs time to propagate, but from the nature of space-time described by theory of relativity.
Time dilation is an observed difference of elapsed time between two observers which are moving relative to each other, or being differently situated from nearby gravitational masses. An observer will see the other observer's clock ticking at a slower rate than his/hers. This effect doesn't arise from technical aspects of the clock or the fact that any signal needs time to propagate, but from the nature of space-time described by theory of relativity.
Time dilation is an observed difference of elapsed time between two observers which are moving relative to each other, or being differently situated from nearby gravitational masses. An observer will see the other observer's clock ticking at a slower rate than his/hers. This effect doesn't arise from technical aspects of the clock or the fact that any signal needs time to propagate, but from the nature of space-time described by theory of relativity.
Sunday, May 29, 2011
Thursday, February 17, 2011
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Tuesday, January 25, 2011
Massacre
The kot massacre
In 1843, Mathbar Singh became the prime minister of Nepal, and gave his support to the heir apparent, Crown Prince Surendra, son of King Rajendra. At that time, real power in Nepal lay in the hands of Queen Lakshmidevi, King Rajendra’s junior queen. Queen Lakshmidevi, of course, had high hopes for her own son and hoped to see him claim the throne in time. Mathbar Singh’s support of Surendra made him a powerful and dangerous enemy in the person of the queen. On May 17, 1845 he was assassinated, and though no proof exists, it is widely believed he was killed by order of the queen.
Intrigue and infighting increased after this, and a former prime minister, Fateh Jang Chautaria, found himself once again in his old position. Military leaders also scrabbled for power, and in the hands of a man named Gagan Singh lay quite a bit of the real power in Nepal. He was a favorite of Queen Lakshmidevi and controlled seven army regiments. The prime minister, Jang Bahadur and Abhiman Singh each controlled three army regiments. On September 14, 1846, Gagan Singh was assassinated while he was at prayer. Queen Lakshmidevi went into a rage.
Nepalese royal massacre:
According to reports, Dipendra had been drinking heavily and had "misbehaved" with a guest, which resulted in his father, King Birendra, telling his son to leave the party. The drunken Dipendra was taken to his room by his brother Prince Nirajan and cousin Prince Paras.
One hour later, Dipendra returned to the party armed with an MP5K and an M16 and fired a single shot into the ceiling before turning the gun on his father, King Birendra. Seconds later, Dipendra shot one of his aunts. He then shot his uncle Dhirendra in the chest at point-blank range when he tried to stop Dipendra. During the shooting, Prince Paras suffered slight injuries and managed to save at least three royals, including two children, by pulling a sofa over them.
During the attack, Dipendra darted in and out of the room firing shots each time. His mother, Queen Aishwarya, who came into the room when the first shots were fired, left quickly, looking for help.
Dipendra's mother Aishwarya and his brother Nirajan confronted him in the garden of the palace, where they were both shot dead. Dipendra then proceeded to a small bridge over a stream running through the palace, where he shot himself.
Dipendra was proclaimed King while in a coma, but he died on June 4, 2001, after a three-day reign.Gyanendra was appointed regent for the three days, then ascended the throne himself after Dipendra died.
While Dipendra lived, Gyanendra maintained that the deaths were the result of an "accident". However, he later said that he made this claim due to "legal and constitutional hurdles", since under the constitution, and by tradition, Dipendra could not have been charged with murder had he survived. A full investigation took place, and Crown Prince Dipendra was found to be responsible for the killing.
The widely circulated rumors is that Prince Dipendra was angry over a marriage dispute. Dipendra's choice of bride was Devyani Rana, daughter of Pashupati SJB Rana, a member of the Rana clan, against whom the Shah dynasty have a historic animosity. The Rana clan had served as the hereditary prime ministers of Nepal until 1951, with the title Maharaja, and the two clans have a long history of inter-marriages.
A two-man committee comprising Keshav Prasad Upadhaya, the then-Supreme Court Chief Justice, and Taranath Ranabhat, the then-Speaker of the House of Representatives, carried out the week-long investigation into the massacre.The investigation concluded, after interviewing more than a hundred people including eyewitnesses and palace officials, guards and staff, that Dipendra had carried out the massacre Large numbers of critics and Nepalese both inside Nepal and abroad disputed the official report because many evidence and facts reported by the then investigation team seems to be in contradiction in many forms. A close aide of Dipendra when he was prince said," He can give up the throne for the sake of his love, but he can never do this kind of thing.
Alleged prophecy of the massacre
The massacre was said to have been prophesied by Buddhi Maya Lama also known as Aama Bombo (Nepalese for Mother Shaman). Aama is a well-known female Shaman, Seer and healer working in Kathmandu. Aama claims to have had worked with all members of the Nepalese royal family, 'working a great deal with the late king'.
In 1843, Mathbar Singh became the prime minister of Nepal, and gave his support to the heir apparent, Crown Prince Surendra, son of King Rajendra. At that time, real power in Nepal lay in the hands of Queen Lakshmidevi, King Rajendra’s junior queen. Queen Lakshmidevi, of course, had high hopes for her own son and hoped to see him claim the throne in time. Mathbar Singh’s support of Surendra made him a powerful and dangerous enemy in the person of the queen. On May 17, 1845 he was assassinated, and though no proof exists, it is widely believed he was killed by order of the queen.
Intrigue and infighting increased after this, and a former prime minister, Fateh Jang Chautaria, found himself once again in his old position. Military leaders also scrabbled for power, and in the hands of a man named Gagan Singh lay quite a bit of the real power in Nepal. He was a favorite of Queen Lakshmidevi and controlled seven army regiments. The prime minister, Jang Bahadur and Abhiman Singh each controlled three army regiments. On September 14, 1846, Gagan Singh was assassinated while he was at prayer. Queen Lakshmidevi went into a rage.
Nepalese royal massacre:
According to reports, Dipendra had been drinking heavily and had "misbehaved" with a guest, which resulted in his father, King Birendra, telling his son to leave the party. The drunken Dipendra was taken to his room by his brother Prince Nirajan and cousin Prince Paras.
One hour later, Dipendra returned to the party armed with an MP5K and an M16 and fired a single shot into the ceiling before turning the gun on his father, King Birendra. Seconds later, Dipendra shot one of his aunts. He then shot his uncle Dhirendra in the chest at point-blank range when he tried to stop Dipendra. During the shooting, Prince Paras suffered slight injuries and managed to save at least three royals, including two children, by pulling a sofa over them.
During the attack, Dipendra darted in and out of the room firing shots each time. His mother, Queen Aishwarya, who came into the room when the first shots were fired, left quickly, looking for help.
Dipendra's mother Aishwarya and his brother Nirajan confronted him in the garden of the palace, where they were both shot dead. Dipendra then proceeded to a small bridge over a stream running through the palace, where he shot himself.
Dipendra was proclaimed King while in a coma, but he died on June 4, 2001, after a three-day reign.Gyanendra was appointed regent for the three days, then ascended the throne himself after Dipendra died.
While Dipendra lived, Gyanendra maintained that the deaths were the result of an "accident". However, he later said that he made this claim due to "legal and constitutional hurdles", since under the constitution, and by tradition, Dipendra could not have been charged with murder had he survived. A full investigation took place, and Crown Prince Dipendra was found to be responsible for the killing.
The widely circulated rumors is that Prince Dipendra was angry over a marriage dispute. Dipendra's choice of bride was Devyani Rana, daughter of Pashupati SJB Rana, a member of the Rana clan, against whom the Shah dynasty have a historic animosity. The Rana clan had served as the hereditary prime ministers of Nepal until 1951, with the title Maharaja, and the two clans have a long history of inter-marriages.
A two-man committee comprising Keshav Prasad Upadhaya, the then-Supreme Court Chief Justice, and Taranath Ranabhat, the then-Speaker of the House of Representatives, carried out the week-long investigation into the massacre.The investigation concluded, after interviewing more than a hundred people including eyewitnesses and palace officials, guards and staff, that Dipendra had carried out the massacre Large numbers of critics and Nepalese both inside Nepal and abroad disputed the official report because many evidence and facts reported by the then investigation team seems to be in contradiction in many forms. A close aide of Dipendra when he was prince said," He can give up the throne for the sake of his love, but he can never do this kind of thing.
Alleged prophecy of the massacre
The massacre was said to have been prophesied by Buddhi Maya Lama also known as Aama Bombo (Nepalese for Mother Shaman). Aama is a well-known female Shaman, Seer and healer working in Kathmandu. Aama claims to have had worked with all members of the Nepalese royal family, 'working a great deal with the late king'.
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